Thursday, December 26, 2019
Molodova I - Paleolithic Mammoth Bone Hut in Ukraine
The Middle and Upper Paleolithic site of Molodova (sometimes spelled Molodovo) is located on the Dniester River in the Chernovtsy (or Chernivtsi) province of Ukraine, between the Dniester river and the Carpathian mountains. Molodova I has five Middle Paleolithic Mousterian occupations (called Molodova 1-5), three Upper Paleolithic occupations and one Mesolithic occupation. The Mousterian components are dated to 44,000 RCYBP, based on charcoal radiocarbon from a hearth. Microfauna and palynological data connect the layer 4 occupations with Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 3 (ca 60,000-24,000 years ago). Archaeologists believe that the stone tool strategies appear to be either Levallois or transitional to Levallois, including points, simple side scrapers and retouched blades, all of which argues that Molodova I was occupied by Neanderthals using a Mousterian tradition tool kit. Artifacts and Features at Molodova I Artifacts from the Mousterian levels at Molodova include 40,000 flint artifacts, including over 7,000 stone tools. The tools are characteristic of typical Mousterian, but lack bifacial forms. They are blades with marginal retouch, retouched side-scrapers and retouched Levallois flakes. Most of the flint is local, from the Dniester river terrace. Twenty-six hearths were identified at Molodova I, varying in diameter from 40x30 centimeters (16x12 inches) to 100x40 cm (40x16 in), with ashy lenses varying from 1-2 cm thick. Stone tools and burned bone fragments were recovered from these hearths. Approximately 2,500 mammoth bones and bone fragments have been recovered from Molodova I layer 4 alone. Living at Molodova The Middle Paleolithic level 4 covers 1,200 square meters (about 13,000 square feet) and includes five areas, including a pit filled with bones, an area with engraved bones, two concentrations of bones and tools, and a circular accumulation of bones with tools in its center. Recent studies (Demay in press) have focused on this last feature which was originally characterized as a mammoth bone hut. However, recent re-investigations of mammoth bone settlements in central Europe have confined the use dates to between 14,000-15,000 years ago: if this was a mammoth bone settlement (MBS), it is older by some 30,000 years than the majority of the others: Molodova currently represents the only Middle Paleolithic MBS discovered to date. Because of the discrepancy in dates, scholars have interpreted the ring of bones as either a hunting blind, a natural accumulation, a circular symbolic ring bound to Neanderthal beliefs, a wind break for a long term occupation, or the result of humans returning to the area and pushing away the bones from the living surface. Demay and colleagues argue that the structure was purposefully built as protection from cold climate in an open environment and, along with the pit features, that makes Molodova an MBS. The ring of bones measured 5x8 meters (16x26 feet) inside and 7x10 m (23x33 ft) externally. The structure included 116 complete mammoth bones, including 12 skulls, five mandibles, 14 tusks, 34 pelves and 51 long bones. The bones represent at least 15 individual mammoths, and included both male and female, both adults and juveniles. Most of the bones appear to have been intentionally selected and assembled by Neanderthals to build a circular structure. A large pit located 9 m (30 ft) from the circular structure contained the majority of non-mammoth bones from the site. But, most importantly, mammoth bones from the pit and dwelling structure have been linked as coming from the same individuals. The bones in the pit show cut marks from butchering activities. Molodova and Archaeology Molodova I was discovered in 1928, and first excavated by I.G. Botez and N. N. Morosan between 1931 and 1932. A.P. Chernysch continued excavations between 1950 and 1961, and again in the 1980s. Detailed site information in English has only recently become available. Sources This glossary entry is a part of the About.com guide to Middle Paleolithic, and the Dictionary of Archaeology. Demay L, PÃ ©an S, and Patou-Mathis M. in press. Mammoths used as food and building resources by Neanderthals: Zooarchaeological study applied to layer 4, Molodova I (Ukraine). Quaternary International(0). Meignen, L., J.-M. Genest, L. Koulakovsaia, and A. Sytnik. 2004. Koulichivka and its place in the Middle-Upper Paleolithic transition in eastern Europe. Chapter 4 in The Early Upper Paleolithic Beyond Western Europe, P.J. Brantingham, S.L. Kuhn, and K. W. Kerry, eds. University of California Press, Berkeley. Vishnyatsky, L.B. and P.E. Nehoroshev. 2004. The beginning of the Upper Paleolithic on the Russian Plain. Chapter 6 in The Early Upper Paleolithic Beyond Western Europe, P.J. Brantingham, S.L. Kuhn, and K. W. Kerry, eds. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Wednesday, December 18, 2019
Essay on Investigative Reporting is the Driving Force in...
Investigative reporting has been a driving force in journalism for centuries. The reporting tradition of revealing misconduct was already well established much before the 20th Century. Its practise even predates the publication of the first successful colonial newspaper in 1704, demonstrating the pressââ¬â¢ watchdog role has had deep historical roots in democracy much prior to the 1960s. Over the past three centuries, investigative reporters have tried to make a difference by raising public consciousness about perceived wrongdoings. Prior to the early 1960s, investigative reporting was highly localised and sporadic. This was a reflection of the character of early journalism and the technological limits of communication. It was not until theâ⬠¦show more contentâ⬠¦The second was an exclusive by Sunday Times Insight, whose reporter Ron Hall detailed the methods used by a criminal landlord, Peter Rachman, to terrorise tenants. These examples set a trend and by the late 1960s t here were many new vehicles for investigative reporting in the national media. One of the most notable reporters of the time was Ron Hall, who has been considered to have virtually invented the art of investigative journalism in Britain, as one of a trio of young reporters in the 1960s, he created the insight team of the Sunday Times. Shortly after he joined the paper, the scandal of the Profumo affair broke so he began to produce a weekly detailed account of what had happened, digging deeper into the background story. Shortly after that, the first truly investigative article written by Hall was an account of the life and misdeeds of Rachman, the corrupt slum landlord. In the course of his 20 years on the paper, he was associated with some of its most important investigative stories, including the Philby spy scandal, thalidomide, and the remarkable disclosure that the yachtsman Donald Crowhurst, who had taken part in a round-the-world race, and had faked his journey, pretending to have orbited the globe. Ron Hall was one of the most influential and talented jou rnalists of his time, an architect of the Sunday Times Insight pages and pioneered techniques of investigative journalism that altered the nature of much of theShow MoreRelatedThe Importance of Investigative Journalism Essay769 Words à |à 4 PagesThough connected through the general base of being a part of the media, investigative journalism is far from the daily reporting and paparazzi reports we are used to. Investigative journalists look to bring attention to violated laws, regulations or wrongdoings that they feel very strongly about. The topic of their research is completely up to their own personal interest and choosing. Their research often takes a long time to collect, and must be very thorough and involve many different sources whileRead MoreWikileaks : A Wholesome Political Environment919 Words à |à 4 Pagesenhance public scrutiny. (WikiLeaks.org, 2006) As creator Julian Assange himself proclaimed, the organization is about putting scientific journalism into practice . This leads to the discussion of how journalists today ought to shoulder the responsibility of the Fourth Estate by means of investigative reporting. The conventional idea of investigative journalism comprises unearthing and crosschecking facts, and backgrounding them into an understandable discourse. Lovink and Riemens argue that WikiLeaksRead MoreEssay On Investigative Journalism1366 Words à |à 6 Pagesof journalism (Alves, 2005; Castillo, 2016; Joyce, Saldaà ±a, Schmitz Weiss, Alves, 2017) while for others, there is a relative declining of it (Dermota, 2002). These perceptions heavily depends on the chosen type of medium (newspapers, television, digital), the massiveness of them (mainstream or independent/non-profit), or the period of time (during or after authoritarian regimes) selected by researchers. Also, perceptions vary whether they address a specific media system or they are driving comparativeRead MoreNews Analysis : News And Journalism2007 Words à |à 9 Pagesthe news play an important role in the daily lives of everybody. If not exchanging information on the current issues, then there is the recap of what has transpired. This thus is the critical role played by the news industry collectively known as journalism. All over the world, the media has played a great role in making sure that the masses are up to date with what is happening. All the stakeholders work day and night to ensure the same. Various aspects come into play though when evaluating the newsRead MoreJournalistic and Commercial News Value: News Organizations as Patrons of an Institution and Market Actors9283 Words à |à 38 Pagescompanies having direct responsibility for journalistic publishing and known for their news and other output of topical material. What distinguishes news media from other media, and news enterprises from other enterprises, is primarily their links to journalism and news as a societal institution. Timothy Cook (1998) distinguishes three central charac teristics of institutions in general, and of media institutions in particular.1 First of all, institutions are social patterns of behaviour common to the organizationsRead MoreJournalistic and Commercial News Value: News Organizations as Patrons of an Institution and Market Actors 9276 Words à |à 38 Pagescompanies having direct responsibility for journalistic publishing and known for their news and other output of topical material. What distinguishes news media from other media, and news enterprises from other enterprises, is primarily their links to journalism and news as a societal institution. Timothy Cook (1998) distinguishes three central characteristics of institutions in general, and of media institutions in particular.1 First of all, institutions are social patterns of behaviour common to the organizationsRead MoreNews Writing Style Ethics And Journalism2027 Words à |à 9 Pages(disambiguation). Journalism Simons Perskaart DOM.jpg News Writing style Ethics Objectivity News values Attribution Defamation Editorial independence Journalism school Index of journalism articles Areas Arts Business Data Entertainment Environment Fashion Medicine Politics Science Sports Technology Trade Traffic Weather World Genres Advocacy Analytic Blogging Broadcast Citizen Civic Collaborative Comics-based Community Database Gonzo Immersion Investigative Literary Muckraking Narrative New Journalism Non-profitRead MoreBusiness Journalism in India26104 Words à |à 105 PagesBusiness and Magazine Journalism (combination of Niche I and II) 1 Growing importance of business journalism, a brief history (2) 2 The structure of financial management in the country starting with the Finance Minister, (5) rest of the bureaucracy, RBI governor, Planning Commission, SEBI, Banking sector 3 The Budget preparation and presentation, factors influencing the annual budget, role of (5) subsidies and foreign exchange reserves 4 Companies, balance sheets, AGMs window dressingRead MoreEthical Companies12021 Words à |à 49 Pagesexpected to have a profound impact on the number of whistle-blower complaints that regulatory agencies will receive. The fear of many companies is that whistle-blowers will have financial incentive to go straight to regulators and avoid internal reporting channels. Back to List 11. Chris Dodd ââ¬â Senator, U.S. Senate Category: Government and Regulatory Next to the UK Bribery Act, the new Dodd-Frank Law is the second most talked about bill issued this year around ethics and compliance. The billRead MoreAn Evaluation of an on-Farm Food Safety Program for Ontario Greenhouse Vegetable Producers; a Global Blueprint for Fruit and Vegetable Producers51659 Words à |à 207 Pagesalways there when I needed her the most. I recently wrote in an op-ed for the International Association for Food Protection s student group that there is an increased need for competent graduates with food safety specialties to enter the work force into industry or regulatory positions. Our generation of scientists will be charged with building safer systems to protect public health and charged with laying the foundation for everyone along the farm to fork continuum to engage in food safety dialogue
Tuesday, December 10, 2019
Analysis of American Pie free essay sample
As the song begins, the narrator seems to feel nostalgic about the music written by a certain person, and he describes the way that music made him smile (1-3). He misses the music from the past that could make people smile, and that could help them forget their troubles. McLean seems to be referring to the 1950s, which is clearer in the chorus of the song. As the speaker goes on, he says, ââ¬Å"But February made me shiver / With every paper Id deliver. â⬠Here it is widely believe that Don McLean is referring to the death of Buddy Holly. He is said to have been delivering newspapers on his paper route the February that he learned of Buddy Hollyââ¬â¢s death. The speaker identifies Holly by the month of his death, and the, ââ¬Å"widowed bride,â⬠(12) that Holly left behind (Fann). The death of Buddy Holly seems to have had a profound effect on Don McLean, as the lyrics appear to show. In the chorus, we see more clearly how McLean misses the 1950s, as he references many events that occurred at the time. The chorus begins with McLean saying, ââ¬Å"Bye, bye, Miss American Pieâ⬠(16). Here the speaker could be referring to the American Dream, which he believes has gone under a change since the 1950s. He seems to think that the idea of the American Dream is different now, in 1971. Another option for what the speaker means here is the fact that Don McLean dated a Miss America contestant once. In line 17, McLean says, ââ¬Å"Drove my Chevy to the levee but the levee was dry. â⬠In the 1950s, Chevrolet was the major automobile company. When McLean says, ââ¬Å"the levee was dry,â⬠(17), he is possibly referring to the fact that a relationship of his has fallen apart (Fann). He seems to be upset over this fact, but he is accepting of it. In the next line, the speaker says, ââ¬Å"Thisââ¬â¢ll be the day that Iââ¬â¢ll dieâ⬠(18). There is a song written by Buddy Holly called, ââ¬Å"Thatââ¬â¢ll Be the Day,â⬠where Holly later says, ââ¬Å"that I die. â⬠Again, McLean is returning to his beloved songwriter, Buddy Holly. We can see here that McLean truly does have an appreciation for Holly as he quotes him in a song of his own. In the next verse, McLean mentions, ââ¬Å"The book of love,â⬠which is a song written by the Monotones in 1957. He clearly appreciates this song and its style. In lines 22-23, the writer says, ââ¬Å"And do you have faith in God / If the Bible tells you so? Here McLean is probably making a reference to an old Sunday School song which goes: Jesus loves me this I know, for the Bible tells me so. â⬠When the speaker says, ââ¬Å"And can you teach me how to dance real slow,â⬠I believe he is referring to the fact that in the 1950s, it was more common to dance sl owly to music. However, in the 1960s, this changed and people focused more on fast dancing than the slow dancing of the 50s. In the last line of this verse, the speaker brings back his main theme of this song, which is the transformation of music after the 1950s. He says, ââ¬Å"But I knew I was out of luck / The day the music diedâ⬠(33-34). He is clearly talking about the fact that he is unhappy about the music of the 1950s and earlier ââ¬Å"dying. â⬠He enjoyed that music, along with the slowness and rhythm of the music. Verse three consists of McLean speaking about Bob Dylan, who he uses to contrast the older music of Buddy Holly. He liked the more early folk type of Bob Dylan, but he notices that Dylan underwent a change like the rest of society. By the end of the verse, McLean is speaking about the Beatles and their impact on him (Fann). His first reference to Bob Dylan comes when he says, ââ¬Å"And moss grows fat on a rolling stone. â⬠Here McLean is speaking about Dylanââ¬â¢s song ââ¬Å"Like a Rolling Stone,â⬠and how this song was Dylanââ¬â¢s first major change from 1950s style music. It could also be referring to the saying, ââ¬Å"A rolling stone gathers no moss,â⬠which talks about how people are always moving and never put their roots in one place. Here the saying more likely means that people have drifted from the old musical style and the values of the time period to something brand new (Fann). Again the verse ends with McLean saying, ââ¬Å"The day the music died. In the summer of 1968, Charles Manson massacred an entire family because of the Beatles song, Helter Skelter. â⬠He was inspired to murder these people by the song. He thought that the Beatles were warning America about the racial conflict happening at the time. Manson wrote the title of the song on the wall in blood af ter committing the murders. In the line, ââ¬Å"We all got up to dance / Oh, but we never got the chance,â⬠the writer could be speaking about how the Beatles wrote songs meant for listening and not dancing. Throughout this verse, the writer talks about, ââ¬Å"players. I believe that here he is most likely referring to the many protesters around this time. He says, ââ¬Å"sweet perfume,â⬠(57) most likely to refer to the use of tear gas against protestors. He seems to believe that the government is corrupt when he says, ââ¬Å"Cause the players tried to take the field (61). Here he means that the protestors tried to create change but the government would not allow them to make the changes. McLean continues his allusions to events happening around him and in the past, and he again ends the verse with his constantly repeated line, ââ¬Å"The day the music died. The next verse seems to focus on the events that happened at Altamont in 1969. ââ¬Å"The flower children gathered at Altamont, 300,000 strong, in a frenzy of drugs, alcohol and escalating violenceâ⬠(Fann). McLean is pointing out here that the ideas of the counterculture are obviously not going to work. He makes this obv ious when he says, ââ¬Å"Oh, and there we were all in one place / A generation lost in space / With no time left to start againâ⬠(65-67). He means that the people who were members of the counterculture were all gathered together at Altamont, and the ideas of their movement were, ââ¬Å"lost in space. ââ¬Å"Jack Flash,â⬠(70) is a reference to the Rolling Stones songà ââ¬Å"Jumpin Jack Flash,â⬠in which the protagonist ââ¬Å"nimbly plays with fire to boast of his freedomâ⬠(Fann). As he does many times, McLean ends with his idea that the music of the 1950s has died. In the final verse of the song the speaker walks among the ruins of his generation, searching for remnants of the 1950s that he once lived through. Lines 81-83 seem to speak about a person who when asked for any happy news can only smile and walk away. This seems to be speaking of Janis Joplin, who died in 1970 of a heroin overdose. He says in line 84 that he goes down to the ââ¬Å"sacred store,â⬠which is most likely a record store that he visited in the 1950s. He says specifically in the next line that he had heard music there years before. When the speaker says, ââ¬Å"But the man there said the music wouldnt play,â⬠he means that the store no longer has the music that he wants to buy (86). At the end of the final verse he yet again uses the signature line of the song, ââ¬Å"the day the music died. â⬠This song is filled with constant meaning and lyrical significance. The speaker begins by speaking about a certain type of music that he used to listen to and that made him smile often. His nostalgia of the past times is clear even in the very first verse. The writer tries to convey his point that the music and customs of the 1950s have changed, and are different from how they used to be. He also shows that he does not like this change. He misses the music of Buddy Holly that could be easily danced to, and he wished people would return to the music of the 1950s. The speaker seems to be upset over this change, and he then runs through the events that have been happening since the 1950s when everything changed for him. This song shows continuous importance and should impact all listeners, whether positively, or negatively. Works Cited Fann, Jim. Understanding American Pie. à Understanding American Pie. N. p. , n. d. Web. 18 Apr 2012. lt;www. understandingamericanpie. comgt;. A long long time ago I can still remember how That music used to make me smile And I knew if I had my chance That I could make those people dance And maybe theyd be happy for a while But February made me shiver With every paper Id deliver Bad news on the doorstep I couldnt take one more step I cant remember if I cried When I read about his widowed bride But something touched me deep inside **The day the music died** So [Chorus] Bye, bye Miss American Pie Drove my Chevy to the levee but the levee was dry Them good ole boys were drinking whiskey in Rye Singin thisll be the day that I die Thisll be the day that I die Did you write the book of love And do you have faith in God above If the Bible tells you so? Now do you believe in rock and roll? Can music save your mortal soul? And can you teach me how to dance real slow? Well, I know that youre in love with him Cause I saw you dancin in the gym You both kicked off your shoes Man, I dig those rhythm and blues I was a lonely teenage broncin buck With a pink carnation and a pickup truck But I knew I was out of luck The day the music died I started singin [Chorus] Now, for ten years weve been on our own And moss grows fat on a rolling stone But, thats not how it used to be When the jester sang for the king and queen In a coat he borrowed from James Dean And a voice that came from you and me Oh and while the king was looking down The jester stole his thorny crown The courtroom was adjourned No verdict was returned And while Lenin read a book on Marx The quartet practiced in the park And we sang dirges in the dark The day the music died We were singin [Chorus] Helter skelter in a summer swelter The birds flew off with a fallout shelter Eight miles high and falling fast It landed foul on the grass The players tried for a forward pass With the jester on the sidelines in a cast Now the half-time air was sweet perfume While sergeants played a marching tune We all got up to dance Oh, but we never got the chance Cause the players tried to take the field The marching band refused to yield Do you recall what was revealed The day the music died? We started singin [Chorus] Oh, and there we were all in one place A generation lost in space With no time left to start again So come on Jack be nimble, Jack be quick Jack Flash sat on a candlestick Cause fire is the devils only friend And as I watched him on the stage My hands were clenched in fists of rage No angel born in Hell Could break that Satans spell And as the flames climbed high into the night To light the sacrificial rite I saw Satan laughing with delight The day the music died He was singin [Chorus] I met a girl who sang the blues And I asked her for some happy news But she just smiled and turned away I went down to the sacred store Where Id heard the music years before But the man there said the music wouldnt play And in the streets the children screamed The lovers cried, and the poets dreamed But not a word was spoken The church bells all were broken And the three men I admire most- the Father, Son, and the Holy Ghost- They caught the last train for the coast The day the music died And they were singing [Chorus: Repeat x2]
Tuesday, December 3, 2019
Various Perspectives of Human Disagreements
Introduction In human society, it is normal for people to express varying views regarding a certain concept, idea, or even opinion. It is not obvious that all societal members would take a similar perspective regarding some of the popular ethical issues, such as drug abuse, abortion, prostitution, and even euthanasia.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Various Perspectives of Human Disagreements specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Disagreements exist because of individual orientation to the world meaning that people are given different instructions on how to handle certain issues. In many cases, an individualââ¬â¢s opinion would be based on culture, rules and regulations, and societal norms. Each individual would tend to give evidence to support his or her view, which makes it difficult for an individual to believe one side of the story. In many cases, those in high positions because of their educational levels and exposure levels would think that they are well versed with issues affecting society hence they might be in a better position to give accurate views. This means that an individual would think others are inferior because of their cultural backgrounds, which is not actually true. An individual would find a reason to claim that his or her opponent is biased. Lackey (2007) noted that those who engage in fierce debates are always epistemic peers. Scholars are fronted with one major question regarding the significance of disagreement among epistemic peers. This article looks at various perspectives regarding disagreements. The paper evaluates the views of various theorists regarding the value of differences in opinion. Views on Disagreement Philosophers have designed two major perspectives to explain some of the reasons that make epistemic peers engage in debates over controversial topics. One of the perspectives is non-conformism, which holds that a disagreement among peers is reason able. One of the scholars named Gideon Rosen (2001) observed that peers are allowed to engage in disagreements, irrespective of whether there is enough evidence. In this regard, disagreeing with another individual over an issue does not mean being unreasonable since differences in opinions are productive to the society. According to Rosen, the jury could perhaps express varying opinions regarding the direction of a certain case, but this does not show inability to reason among the judges. In the same way, respected paleontologists have always disagreed over the real causes of death in dinosaurs, but they still agree over some facts. The above scholar seems to suggest that, even though evidence could be evaluated carefully, it should not be the reason for agreement since some individuals could still be having divergent views based on other factors.Advertising Looking for term paper on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On his part, Kelly Thomas justified his varying views by suggesting that equality in terms of intelligence, thoughtfulness, and acquaintance with his peers does not prove any inferiority on his side. In other words, he was trying to show that accessing similar educational system and going through similar set of standards does not mean that people should reason in the same way. Suggesting a different perspective or opinion is a sign of democracy and openness. Peter van Inwagen was of the view that a good philosopher ought to be skeptic meaning that he or she should accept some sort of criticism from his or her peers (Lackey, 2007). In any defense of a philosophic thesis, some are opposed to the contents of the thesis while are others are always in support of it. Those who reject it should not be viewed with contempt since they would simply be expressing their views based on what they know. Knowledge is always cumulative implying that an individual will accumulate it over a long peri od. This does not mean that each person would accumulate it in the same way. The level of interpretation is always different meaning that people will always have differences. Opponents of a certain opinion or view should not be subjected to unnecessary criticism since they might be having something to prove. In this regard, dissenting views in philosophy should not be revised, but instead they should be analyzed to understand their meaning. Scholars aligned to nonconformist perspective justify their stand with two explanations. The first explanation is given through egocentric view meaning that an individual will always give weight to what he believes to be true. Based on this, Ralph Wedgewood (2005) observed that an individual would always tend to trust what he or she knows meaning that intuitions are given greater weight in any discussion. People rarely trust what other people say since they believe that they might be harmful. In any discussion, an individual would be biased towar ds his or her view. However, an individual would as well rely on the views of others in case they are rational. Wedgewood made a statement that, ââ¬Å"the fundamental asymmetry between oneââ¬â¢s own intuitions and those of other people is just that it is rational to trust oneââ¬â¢s own intuitions even if one has no antecedent or independent reason to regard them as reliable. Moreover, it is only rational for an individual to trust his or her own intuitions if he or she has some such antecedent reason to regard intuitions as reliable (11)â⬠. An individual is easily convinced to apply his form of knowledge because he or she trusts it. Nonconformists give corrective reasoning as the other way of justifying their position. This is because an individual gives an opinion because knowing that it is a product of correct reasoning. In other words, an individual will never be wrong since the knowledge he or she possess is believed to be accurate. Kelly (2005) supported this view b y observing that the views of two peers would depend on the perspective employed in evaluating the available evidence.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Various Perspectives of Human Disagreements specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Regarding the accuracy of the statements, Kelly suggested that the one with adequate evidence is always selected as the best philosopher. This does not mean that the views of the opponent are rubbished away since they could be used to supplement or even compliment the views of the peer believed to be accurate. A peer with adequate evidence to support his or her claims would be considered reasonable. Conformists Conformists believe that there cannot be a reasonable argument among peers because of the established values and norms in every society. Richard Feldman claimed that disagreements should be based on situations where there is no evidence. Once there is full evidence or disclosu re of certain information, there should be no variations in views since the evidence act as the basis of agreement. There cannot be mutual disagreements once full details of a concept or idea is given. In fact, those opposed to generally agreed knowledge should be termed unreasonable since they would be competing with authority. On his part, Christensen (2007) underscored the fact that peers should be willing to concede in order to accommodate each otherââ¬â¢s views. This means that an individual should adjust his reasoning towards the views suggested by his or her peer. Elga reinforced these views by observing an individual should consider the views of his or her peer valuable meaning that all ideas of peers should be given equal weight, but an individual should not be biased towards his or her view Lackey, 2007). An individual is never assured that whatever he or she suggests is accurate since he might have made a mistake in judging or interpreting the scenario or situation. To prevent any disagreement among peers, new knowledge should be revised to reflect the standardized set of knowledge in any society. However, conformists are in disagreement over the best revision method to be applied when re-evaluating the dissenting views. Based on this, Feldman suggested that revision should be extensive meaning that any variation should be replaced in the text. This view demands that the original provisions of a concept are withheld without any change meaning that status quo should always be maintained. Christensen and Elga on their part had a different view regarding revision of the dissenting views since they advised that the degree of belief should be used a yardstick in advocating for revision of the differing views (Lackey, 2007). This means that the views of a dissenting scholar should not be eliminated, but those revising them should strive at reaching a consensus. In other words, both the dissenting scholar and the revising peers should be willing to conc ede to a certain degree, based on facts.Advertising Looking for term paper on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More If revising peers provide adequate evidence, they would definitely be declared winners while the views of a dissenting scholar would be accepted if the facts given outweigh those of the revisionists. All conformists are of the view that knowledge should be revised to reach a common ground to avoid unnecessary controversies. Justification Account Conformists and nonconformists tend to share a common feature, which is related to uniformity. This view suggests that differences among peers are similar, irrespective of the perspective discussed in the above sections. It does not matter whether an individual agrees or disagrees with his or her peer over a political suggestion, or a religious view. The views of an individual would be subjected to critical review or they would be accepted based on evidential equality and cognitive equality. Evidential equality means that those disagreeing with a view should be prepared to offer adequate information suggesting that what they claim to be true is indeed support by evidence. In other words, their data should be verifiable through established instruments of authentication. Cognitive equality suggests that two individuals would be allowed to engage in a debate in case they have similar levels of education. This means that they must both be competent, intelligent and fair-minded to offer their suggestions. This would allow such individuals to evaluate the quality of evidence before suggesting any new idea. Feldman contributed to this by arguing that peers under disagreement should disclose their evidence to allow other peers to establish who might be on the right side (Lackey, 2007). Individuals involved in a debate are believed to be peers because they can perhaps provide evidence and are both intelligent. This implies that cognitive equality and evidential equality should exist before individuals could be terms as epistemic peers. In this regard, disagreements among peers could be referred to as idealized disagreement sinc e the two opponents have genuine claims that must be subjected to thorough verification to ascertain their accuracy. This type of disagreement is very different from ordinary disagreement because it is based on facts and evidence. In ordinary debates, individuals are not required to give justifications of their claims through adequate provision of evidence, analyzing an event or situation through cognitive processes, and disclosing the nature of evidence. In an idealized disagreement scenario, there must be evidence that the two opposing peers are equal in terms of cognitive processes and evidence, but this is not the case in ordinary disagreement since individuals would simply assume that they are equals. This assumption might be misplaced meaning that the peers might not even reach a consensus since they are not equals. Conclusion Nonconformists tend to appreciate the fact that knowledge is cumulative meaning that todayââ¬â¢s knowledge is not tomorrowââ¬â¢s knowledge. Since scholars are constantly involved in research, there is a very high possibility that new knowledge would be obtained. It would be irrational to dismiss a body of knowledge derived through research. Peers should be allowed to generate various forms of knowledge, provided they give adequate evidence to support their claims. Nonconformists encourage new discoveries while conformists are against invention and discovery since they do not accept new information. In the scholarly world, democracy should be allowed since every person would wish to test his or her level of understanding by examining a phenomenon so closely. In case peers are strict on the procedures and processes of conducting research, many individuals would be unwilling to share critical information. References Christensen, D. (2007). Epistemology of Disagreement: the Good News. The Philosophical Review, 116(2), 187-217. Kelly, T. (2005). Oxford Studies in Epistemology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lackey, J. (2007). A Justificationist View of Disagreementââ¬â¢s Epistemic Significance. Northwestern: Northwestern University Rosen, G. (2001). Nominalism, Naturalism, Epistemic Relativism. Philosophical Perspectives, 15(1), 69-91. Wedgewood, R. (2007). The Nature of Normativity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. This term paper on Various Perspectives of Human Disagreements was written and submitted by user Braelynn Rose to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)